Second-Language Acquisition

Second-language acquisition is the process through which one learns a second language (L2). It is learning a second language after a first language is established. The L2 is often referred to as the target language. Second-language acquisition encompasses the process an individual goes through to learn the elements of a new language, such as vocabulary, phonological components, grammatical structures, and writing systems (Robertson & Ford, 2017).

Effective EL instruction

• reflects levels of language acquisition;
• guides learners to move through language acquisition; and
• engages learners at all stages of language acquisition to higher-level thinking activities.

Learning more than one language does not delay the acquisition of English or impede academic achievement in English when both languages are supported. As with any type of learning, young ELs vary in the rate at which they learn a second language. The speed of language acquisition is due to factors both within the child and in the child’s learning environment. The child’s personality, interests, and motivation influence the rate of acquisition and language fluency levels.

In an effort to develop fluency, increase rate, and facilitate language development, sheltered instruction practices are essential components of classroom instruction. Sheltered instruction is an instructional approach that uses various strategies to ensure grade-level instruction provided in English addresses both content and language objectives.

It is critical to understand several cognitive processes in order to support language acquisition for young ELs.

Language acquisition is an unconscious process developed through using language meaningfully and naturally. In contrast, language learning is consciously learning or discovering rules about a language (Téllez, 2010).

Being cognizant that language development is accelerated in context-embedded environments, educators should consider the following during classroom instruction and in interactions with students:

• Students' observation of the teacher (gestures, facial expressions, use of visuals and concrete objects, others’ reactions to the teacher)
• Students' observation of voice cues used by the teacher (phrasing, intonation, emphasis)
• Teacher’s observation of students asking for clarification (repeat, rephrase)

It is essential to understand that individual students' variables such as their affective filter and language background, the complexity of language development, and context-embedded practices support language growth and escalate the learning for young ELs.

Theory and Application

In order to better serve young ELs in the classroom, it is necessary to understand the research and theories of second-language acquisition and the relationship between acquisition and teaching.

The following theories describe second-language acquisition, the language-learning process, and the significant impact they have in the areas of second-language research and teaching.

Stephen Krashen is a leading expert in the field of linguistics, language learning, and language development. His well-known and widely accepted theories of second-language acquisition have had a lasting impact in all areas of second-language research and teaching since the 1980s (Krashen, 1987).

1. The Natural Order Hypothesis
2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

Natural Order Hypothesis
The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings (Dulay & Burt, 1974; Fathman, 1975; Makino, 1980, as cited in Krashen, 1987) that suggest the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a natural, predictable order.

This research also suggests that the understanding of grammatical structures grows in a predictable, or natural, order. The Natural Order hypothesis is based on this research (Krashen, 1987).

According to Krashen, learners acquire parts of language in a predictable order. Certain grammatical structures are acquired early on, while others are acquired later in the process.

This hypothesis suggests that this natural order of acquisition occurs independently of formal teaching; therefore, teachers cannot change the order of a grammatical teaching sequence. The order for the first language and second language is similar, but not identical. Language will be acquired in its natural time, which varies by individual.

Affective Filter Hypothesis
The Affective Filter hypothesis asserts that a number of variables affect second-language acquisition. These variables include motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety (Krashen, 1987). This hypothesis of second-language development relates to the significance of providing an environment that is comfortable and supportive, promoting the desire to explore learning. Learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second-language acquisition (Krashen, 1985).

The affective filter is an invisible psychological filter that can support or disrupt learning, especially while learning a second language. When the affective filter is high, students experience stress, anxiety, and a lack of self-confidence that may inhibit learning and developing a second language. A low affective filter facilitates comfort and self-confidence, thereby increasing a student's willingness to take risks and explore in the classroom, which may expedite the learning process.

A student’s affective filter can be raised or lowered as a result of the environment, interactions with students and teachers, or personal factors such as insecurity and anxiety. Early childhood teachers should strategically structure their classroom environments and instructional practices in an effort to lower the affective filter for young ELs.

The Low Affective Filter Checklist resource demonstrates how the early childhood teacher may encourage a positive comfort level for the young student in the learning environment. After completing the checklist, it can be used as a guide in establishing an environment that supports teaching and facilitates learning. Krashen (1981) emphasized that the affective filter can support or disrupt learning. Therefore, it’s essential that the environment instills comfort and confidence as learning and language development are facilitated. For this reason, teachers need to create a supportive and positive classroom environment to lower the affective filter and facilitate learning.

Low Affective Filter Checklist

Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
Jim Cummins is a leading expert on bilingual education and second-language acquisition. His research has highlighted several theories in the field of language development that are of importance in classrooms today with students of all ages. One of his theories is the two dimensions of language, BICS and CALP. BICS are the surface skills of listening and speaking, which are typically acquired quickly by many students. Within two years, most ELs learn sufficient English to engage in social communication (Cummins, 1980). However, even ELs need five to seven years to acquire cognitive academic language proficiency, or CALP, in content classrooms (Baker, 2011). CALP is the basis for a child’s ability to cope with the academic demands of content area subjects.

ELs’ language skills are often informally assessed based upon their ability to comprehend and respond to conversation. However, ELs who are proficient in social situations may not yet be prepared for the academic and literacy expectations of early childhood classrooms.

The dropdown provides examples of BICS and CALP in relation to young ELs.

Understanding the difference between BICS and CALP in classroom settings will enable teachers to integrate language skills appropriate to each student’s level, along with general early childhood developmental skills, in daily instruction.

Stages of Second-Language Acquisition
In order for early childhood education programs to be successful in supporting diverse learners, teachers must have an understanding of the process of second-language acquisition and how to adapt their expectations and instruction accordingly for young ELs. An increased understanding of second-language acquisition will lead to improved methods for promoting the learning and achievement of young ELs.

When children learn to talk, it happens in stages beginning with understanding, then moving to one-word utterances, followed by two-word phrases, and so on (Hill & Björk, 2004). All new learners of English progress through the same stages as they acquire language. Krashen and Terrell (1983) wrote that students learning a second language move through five predictable stages: Preproduction, Early Production, Speech Emergence, Intermediate Fluency, and Advanced Fluency. The length of time students spend in a particular stage may vary since progression through the stages depends on many factors, including literacy experiences and family background.

The Stages of Second-Language Acquisition Checklist resource serves as a guide to observe the language levels and progress of ELs. Within each level is a suggested time frame for second-language development. Identifying the time frame will assist in the learning level during instructional planning. Some ELs may require more assistance at different levels. The Questioning Techniques column includes questioning cues to help teachers support and scaffold language development, specifically through higher-order questioning.

Stages of Second-Language Acquisition Checklist