ELLs have varying levels of English language proficiency as well as diverse educational and cultural backgrounds. For educators, it is important to recognize and appreciate the diversity and context ELLs bring into the classroom as they develop their language skills and process new content.
Language transfer, linguistic interference, or cross meaning are terms used when referring to this transfer of skills.
A distinction can generally be made between a positive and a negative transfer. Sousa (2011) explains whether positive or negative, evidence of a student's first language “should not be viewed or regarded as signs of inhibition, but simply as evidence of his [or her] strategies of learning” (Corder, 1967). Students are simply applying their knowledge from their native language and their current level of English language proficiency to understand and organize newly–learned language and content material.
An educator's ability to identify and understand language transfer provides valuable opportunities to make the most of a student's existing skills and prevent errors that may arise. In addition students will develop a sense of self-confidence as they recognize and apply what they already know to the second language.
The examples below illustrate how language transfer impacts second language acquisition. Pay particular attention to those terms that are examples of both positive and negative forms of transfer.
While most ELLs are Texas-born and educated in Texas, there is a sizable population of immigrant students currently enrolled in Texas public schools. In spring 2016, it was reported that ELLs in Texas represent about 18% of the total students in schools (PEIMS 2015–2016). Many of the ELLs included in this total have had limited or no experience with formal education, or their schooling has been interrupted for extended periods of time.
Students with Interrupted Formal Education (SIFE) is one of the terms used when addressing this subpopulation of ELLs. Due to a variety of factors, SIFE often have a distinct educational experience in comparison with other ELLs.
In order to fully support and address students’ sociocultural and academic needs, it is important to recognize and understand how their prior schooling and cultural experiences influence and affect their perceptions about school and their academic achievement.
Community, educational systems, and home or family are some of the contributing factors to SIFE.
Community
Some students may enter the classroom having previously been in
(Freeman & Freeman, 2002; DeCapua, Smathers, & Tang, 2012)
Educational Systems
Students’ previous educational systems
(Freeman & Freeman, 2002; DeCapua, Smathers, & Tang, 2012)
Home or Family
Students’ home or family
(Freeman & Freeman, 2002; DeCapua, Smathers, & Tang, 2012)
Students bring to the classroom a wide range of educational abilities and backgrounds. In order to effectively and positively promote students’ academic achievement, it is important to recognize that a focus on academic instruction on its own isn’t sufficient. It also involves the utilization of focused, targeted, and systematic second language acquisition instruction to provide a foundation of English language. It is also important to take into account instructional strategies that focus on social, cultural, and linguistic attributes of the second language acquisition process.
While it is especially valuable to learn about some of the common underlying concerns that affect SIFE, some caution should be taken to not overgeneralize students based on their prior schooling experiences. It must be noted that “students with interrupted formal education may not have had a lot of academic experience, but their life experiences are often well beyond their grade and age levels” (DeCapua, Smathers, & Tang, 2007, p. 42). Being aware of and building on students' backgrounds will support and ease their transition into the expectations of a classroom setting.
As is the case with levels of English language proficiency, ELLs have varying levels of literacy. In the simplest definition, literacy is the ability to read and write in a language. Many ELLs have often already learned to read and write in their first language, some more or less successfully. Others may not have had any first language literacy experience. First-language literacy experience and knowledge influence the approach ELLs use when learning to read in a second language.
As Cummins’s CUP model demonstrates, there are some literacy skills that ELLs can transfer and apply when learning to read and write in a second language.
ELLs may be able to transfer foundational pre-reading skills such as knowledge of how text is tracked on a page (directionality) and how to sequence events in order (e.g., first, middle, last). They may also be able to transfer more advanced literacy skills and strategies learned in the first language. Examples include knowing sounds and symbols, understanding concepts about print and text structure, and using comprehension strategies such as monitoring, questioning, and visualizing. It is important to note that transfer of these skills and strategies is not automatic.
ELLs’ knowledge that written symbols correspond to sounds is a transferable skill; however, sounding out is not an effective strategy to apply in the beginning stages of L2 learning. Students have not yet developed the skill to recall and match with newly sounded-out words.
ELLs generally begin to read simple phrases and sentences as they learn the language orally. Once students become more knowledgeable in L2, word recognition, fluency, and reading rate will increase. Students will then be able to further apply and expand their L1 literacy skills in L2 learning.
Meltzer, Smith, and Clark (2002) further define literacy as the ability to read, write, speak, listen, and think effectively. These forms of literacy enable students to learn new concepts and to communicate clearly using their prior knowledge.
At the secondary level, the content material and text structures are more challenging, and students must be able to apply a range of reading comprehension skills.
Reflect on this: How do educators support literacy and develop students’ comprehension of content?
Above all, literacy cannot be viewed as the sole responsibility of one department or content area. It is important to note that there are explicit literacy demands that are inherent to each specific content area.
Because effective literacy support is key to ELLs' success, it is essential to know, understand, and develop literacy across the curriculum.
Some literacy strategies are generic and “can be applied in similar ways across the content areas” while discipline-based literacy strategies “differ greatly depending on the particular subject” (Meltzer, Smith, and Clark, 2002).
Culture can be defined as the behaviors and beliefs that characterize a particular social, ethnic, or age group. In terms of education, the culture of a particular school or classroom has a significant impact and influence on the opinions, attitudes, and behaviors of those who work and learn in a classroom setting.
Sousa (2011) explains that “school cultures are unique and they can either encourage or stifle change,” and “no two schools have the same culture.” Just as anything viable, a school culture can evolve and change.
Note: A school’s demographics, which includes students and staff, play an important role in building and shaping a school’s culture, positively or negatively.
School cultures that support teaching and learning are called positive or collegial cultures (Sousa, 2011). Cultures that hinder teaching and learning are often referred to as toxic cultures (Deal & Peterson, 1998; Sousa, 2011).
The characteristics or traits common to positive and toxic cultures are listed below.
It is essential for educators to become aware of and recognize the underlying attitudes and actions that impede positive and toxic cultures.
The ELPS are the required second language acquisition standards that support an ELL's ability to develop English and learn academic material simultaneously.
The ELPS Cross-Curricular second language knowledge and skills provide the student expectations that are divided into the following five sections:
The PLDs describe how ELLs at each proficiency level are able to understand and use English to engage in grade-appropriate academic instruction. There are separate PLDs within the language domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
The PLDs within each language domain define the four stages of second language proficiency as beginning, intermediate, advanced, and advanced high. Each level of language proficiency describes the skills and abilities that ELLs have to understand and use English in academic learning interactions.
To assist teachers in identifying additional support needed for ELLs in their lesson design and delivery, the ELPS Linguistic Instructional Alignment Guide (LIAG) was developed. For resource information go to the ELPS Support Center.
Linguistic accommodations are changes to the instructional approach based upon the language proficiency levels of ELLs. The PLDs, which describe the English that ELLs are able to understand and use at each language proficiency level, guide teachers in providing appropriate linguistic supports and accommodations.
Linguistically accommodated instruction can take many forms and is used to communicate content and support language development across language proficiency levels.
Supplementary materials are used to promote comprehension and support students as they acquire new concepts. Some supplementary materials might include illustrations, charts, manipulatives, and realia (real life objects).
Instructional delivery is the way we choose to deliver the lesson. For example, before presenting new content, a teacher might activate prior knowledge, identify misconceptions, or review previously taught content (e.g. pre-teach vocabulary, review word walls, identify cognates, model/demonstrate).
Assigning tasks based on the student’s current level of language proficiency means being cognizant of students’ language proficiency levels and selecting appropriate tasks or activities. Assignments informed by students' language proficiency levels will provide the linguistic accommodations needed to ensure success (LIAG, 2012).
The ELPS Instructional Tool was created to provide educators with insight to the essential instructional components for supporting ELLs. For resource information go to the ELPS Support Center.
While degrees of linguistic support will vary, there are some strategies that can be accommodated for varying proficiency levels. Some of these strategies include those mentioned below.
Provide a low-anxiety environment
Use appropriate questioning
Identifying and understanding students’ proficiency levels allow educators to plan linguistically accommodated instruction appropriately. As students’ progress from the beginning to advanced high level of language proficiency, it is important to note that students' progress will vary as well as their duration at each level. As a student's level of language proficiency increases, the level and degree of linguistic support (accommodations) decreases.