Conduction, Convection, and Radiation
Whenever there is a temperature difference, heat transfer occurs. Heat transfer may happen rapidly, such as through a cooking pan, or slowly, such as through the walls of an insulated cooler.
There are three different heat transfer methods: conduction, convection, and radiation. At times, all three may happen simultaneously. See Figure 11.3.
Conduction is heat transfer through direct physical contact. Heat transferred between the electric burner of a stove and the bottom of a pan is transferred by conduction. Sometimes, we try to control the conduction of heat to make ourselves more comfortable. Since the rate of heat transfer is different for different materials, we choose fabrics, such as a thick wool sweater, that slow down the transfer of heat away from our bodies in winter.
As you walk barefoot across the living room carpet, your feet feel relatively comfortable…until you step onto the kitchen’s tile floor. Since the carpet and tile floor are both at the same temperature, why does one feel colder than the other? This is explained by different rates of heat transfer: The tile material removes heat from your skin at a greater rate than the carpeting, which makes it feel colder.
Some materials simply conduct thermal energy faster than others. In general, metals (like copper, aluminum, gold, and silver) are good heat conductors, whereas materials like wood, plastic, and rubber are poor heat conductors.
Figure 11.4 shows particles (either atoms or molecules) in two bodies at different temperatures. The (average) kinetic energy of a particle in the hot body is higher than in the colder body. If two particles collide, energy transfers from the particle with greater kinetic energy to the particle with less kinetic energy. When two bodies are in contact, many particle collisions occur, resulting in a net flux of heat from the higher-temperature body to the lower-temperature body. The heat flux depends on the temperature difference . Therefore, you will get a more severe burn from boiling water than from hot tap water.
Convection is heat transfer by the movement of a fluid. This type of heat transfer happens, for example, in a pot boiling on the stove, or in thunderstorms, where hot air rises up to the base of the clouds.
Tips For Success
In everyday language, the term fluid is usually taken to mean liquid. For example, when you are sick and the doctor tells you to “push fluids,” that only means to drink more beverages—not to breath more air. However, in physics, fluid means a liquid or a gas. Fluids move differently than solid material, and even have their own branch of physics, known as fluid dynamics, that studies how they move.
As the temperature of fluids increase, they expand and become less dense. For example, Figure 11.4 could represent the wall of a balloon with different temperature gases inside the balloon than outside in the environment. The hotter and thus faster moving gas particles inside the balloon strike the surface with more force than the cooler air outside, causing the balloon to expand. This decrease in density relative to its environment creates buoyancy (the tendency to rise). Convection is driven by buoyancy—hot air rises because it is less dense than the surrounding air.
Sometimes, we control the temperature of our homes or ourselves by controlling air movement. Sealing leaks around doors with weather stripping keeps out the cold wind in winter. The house in Figure 11.5 and the pot of water on the stove in Figure 11.6 are both examples of convection and buoyancy by human design. Ocean currents and large-scale atmospheric circulation transfer energy from one part of the globe to another, and are examples of natural convection.
Radiation is a form of heat transfer that occurs when electromagnetic radiation is emitted or absorbed. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays, all of which have different wavelengths and amounts of energy (shorter wavelengths have higher frequency and more energy).
You can feel the heat transfer from a fire and from the sun. Similarly, you can sometimes tell that the oven is hot without touching its door or looking inside—it may just warm you as you walk by. Another example is thermal radiation from the human body; people are constantly emitting infrared radiation, which is not visible to the human eye, but is felt as heat.
Radiation is the only method of heat transfer where no medium is required, meaning that the heat doesn’t need to come into direct contact with or be transported by any matter. The space between Earth and the sun is largely empty, without any possibility of heat transfer by convection or conduction. Instead, heat is transferred by radiation, and Earth is warmed as it absorbs electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun.
All objects absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation (see Figure 11.7). The rate of heat transfer by radiation depends mainly on the color of the object. Black is the most effective absorber and radiator, and white is the least effective. People living in hot climates generally avoid wearing black clothing, for instance. Similarly, black asphalt in a parking lot will be hotter than adjacent patches of grass on a summer day, because black absorbs better than green. The reverse is also true—black radiates better than green. On a clear summer night, the black asphalt will be colder than the green patch of grass, because black radiates energy faster than green. In contrast, white is a poor absorber and also a poor radiator. A white object reflects nearly all radiation, like a mirror.
Virtual Physics
Energy Forms and Changes
In this animation, you will explore heat transfer with different materials. Experiment with heating and cooling the iron, brick, and water. This is done by dragging and dropping the object onto the pedestal and then holding the lever either to Heat or Cool. Drag a thermometer beside each object to measure its temperature—you can watch how quickly it heats or cools in real time.
Now let’s try transferring heat between objects. Heat the brick and then place it in the cool water. Now heat the brick again, but then place it on top of the iron. What do you notice?
Selecting the fast forward option lets you speed up the heat transfers, to save time.
Grasp Check
Compare how quickly the different materials are heated or cooled. Based on these results, what material do you think has the greatest specific heat? Why? Which has the smallest specific heat? Can you think of a real-world situation where you would want to use an object with large specific heat?
- Water will take the longest, and iron will take the shortest time to heat, as well as to cool. Objects with greater specific heat would be desirable for insulation. For instance, woolen clothes with large specific heat would prevent heat loss from the body.
- Water will take the shortest, and iron will take the longest time to heat, as well as to cool. Objects with greater specific heat would be desirable for insulation. For instance, woolen clothes with large specific heat would prevent heat loss from the body.
- Brick will take shortest and iron will take longest time to heat up as well as to cool down. Objects with greater specific heat would be desirable for insulation. For instance, woolen clothes with large specific heat would prevent heat loss from the body.
- Water will take shortest and brick will take longest time to heat up as well as to cool down. Objects with greater specific heat would be desirable for insulation. For instance, woolen clothes with large specific heat would prevent heat loss from the body.